AI is changing the economics of employment litigation.

For employers defending claims under the Fair Work Act, the issue is not just that more self-represented applicants are using generative AI (which they are), or that the volume of claims is rising (which it is). It is that AI is changing how those claims are presented, pursued and defended.

Claims that may once have been short, informal or obviously weak can now arrive as lengthy, structured and apparently sophisticated legal documents. Applicants can generate pleadings, submissions, evidence and interlocutory material in minutes, at little or no cost. They can also run every available argument, however marginal. If an applicant asks the model to find them arguments, it will find many arguments for them.

The result is a new imbalance in litigation. AI may reduce the cost of bringing and pursuing a claim, but it can significantly increase the cost of defending one.

Better armed, but not better advised

A good lawyer does more than build arguments: they exercise judgement. That means knowing which points are worth running, which evidence will hold up, when a procedural step is proportionate and when settlement is the smarter course. This important role of the lawyer is recognised by the overriding purpose that guides the conduct in civil litigation – the just, quick and cheap resolution of claims.

GenAI can help with advocacy. In fact, it can be very good at this. It can identify arguments, impose structure and produce material that looks convincing. But it does not bring the same level of judgement or strategic insight. It does not assess credibility in any meaningful way. It does not understand the forensic risk of over-pleading. It does not weigh the commercial value of taking a minor point of law. And it will not tell an applicant, with the authority of a trusted adviser, that the case is weak or that a commercial settlement should be considered. That is the real distinction.

A self-represented applicant using AI may be better armed, but they are not necessarily better advised. The technology can give them more arguments to run, without the discipline to know which ones to drop.

That is where the cost problem starts. Litigation once imposed its own friction. Parties had to think carefully about which issues were worth pursuing. However, AI removes much of that friction for self-represented applicants. There is little practical incentive to narrow the dispute, while employers must still assess, triage and, where necessary, answer each point.

AI in the hearing room

The issue is not confined to documents filed in proceedings. In a recent matter, we suspected that a self-represented applicant was using a GenAI tool in real time to formulate oral responses during the hearing itself. When the court directed the applicant to stop using AI technology, there was a noticeable change in the structure, sophistication and legal framing of the applicant’s responses (leading us to believe our suspicion was correct). Others have reported similar experiences.

That raises obvious questions about the integrity of proceedings, as well as practical questions for courts, tribunals and employers.

Courts and tribunals are starting to regulate the use of AI in litigation, and the guidance is evolving quickly. The Federal Court has issued Practice Note GPN-AI, which sets out the Court’s expectations for responsible use of GenAI, including that disclosure may be required if the Court directs it. However, the use of AI during oral hearings appears to be a new frontier. This is particularly problematic where hearings are conducted virtually.

The Fair Work Commission has just issued its Guidance Note on the use of GenAI, effective 20 October 2026, which requires applicants to disclose if and how they have used GenAI to prepare their application.

The Fair Work Commission has also shown a willingness to intervene where AI use affects the conduct of a dispute. In a recent stop-bullying matter, the Commission made orders limiting use of generative AI in correspondence between the parties. This was on the basis that the employee’s lengthy, repetitive and accusatory language (thanks to AI and the prompts it was no doubt given) resulted in the employer failing to meaningfully engage with the concerns raised by the employee. The point is not that AI has no place in workplace communications, but rather that AI-generated correspondence can escalate a dispute if it is not tempered by human judgement and a good dose of old-fashioned common sense.

A cost asymmetry

Fair Work Act proceedings operate in a “no-costs” jurisdiction. In most cases, unless there are exceptional circumstances, each party bears their own costs. That position reflects an important premise: workers should not be deterred from bringing genuine claims because they fear an adverse costs order.

But AI is putting pressure on that framework. If an applicant can generate lengthy legal materials at no cost, but employers must pay lawyers and internal stakeholders to triage and respond, the cost burden shifts. A weak claim can still become expensive to defend.

The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia recently addressed the tension created by no-costs employment litigation. In Park v Health Insurance Comparison Choosewell Pty Ltd (No 2) [2026] FedCFamC2G 1344, Judge Vasta observed that the no-costs jurisdiction “does not mean that any applicant has a ‘free hit’ at an employer, in effect, trying to get the employer to give them, what is colloquially known as, ‘go-away money’ to settle an unmeritorious claim, simply because it would cost the employer far too much to defend such a claim.” His Honour emphasised that the no-costs framework exists to protect applicants with genuine claims, not to shield those who exploit the cost disparity inherent in the system.

That principle has obvious relevance in an AI-assisted litigation environment, where it is easier than ever to bring claims at little or no direct cost. There is a real risk that the influx of AI-assisted claims will make it harder for the system to focus on genuine claims. Matters that should resolve early may instead be pushed to hearing, putting further pressure on court and tribunal resources.

Just last month, in Sadnan Khan v Aldi Pty Ltd [2026] FWC 3144, a case handled by our firm, the Fair Work Commission took the “very rare step” of issuing a costs order against an employee who “relied heavily on artificial intelligence”, requiring him to pay some of his former employer’s legal costs. Deputy President Easton found that the employee’s decision to pursue his claim, despite clear and specific advice to the contrary, was ill-advised and unreasonable. The decision sends a clear message that the Commission may accept AI as a drafting tool, but blind reliance on AI advice will not be an excuse for pursuing a claim that is plainly flawed.

Looking ahead

The debate about GenAI in the legal system is already well underway, and it will not be resolved quickly. The Federal Court has recently announced a research project into unrepresented litigants and the administration of justice, with the aim of informing how the justice system responds to these issues. In the meantime, there are practical steps employers can take now when managing AI-assisted claims:

  • Triage on substance. A well-structured AI-generated submission is not the same thing as a strong claim. Employers should identify the real issues and respond proportionately.
  • Do not be drawn into every point. Self-represented applicants may run every available argument. Employers should resist the instinct to answer every weak, irrelevant or unsupported contention in full.
  • Prepare for procedural overreach. Be ready for unnecessary subpoenas, amended claims, additional evidence and interlocutory steps. Deal with them firmly, but proportionately.
  • Build the costs record from day one. Keep a clear record of unreasonable conduct, unsupported allegations, fabricated or irrelevant citations, rejected offers and unnecessary procedural steps.

In the spirit of full disclosure, AI lent a hand in preparing this blog post. However, the technical judgement, opinions and scepticism are entirely ours.

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We are delighted to welcome Nicholas Turner to Seyfarth as a partner in our Sydney office, further strengthening our market-leading labour and employment practice in Australia and across our global network.

Nicholas joins with more than 20 years’ experience advising across Australia, Asia and Europe, bringing a truly international perspective to employment law. He is widely recognised as a trusted adviser to boards and senior executives on complex workplace, industrial and strategic workforce matters, and has built a reputation for delivering pragmatic, solutions-focused advice in high stakes environments.

Prior to joining Seyfarth, Nicholas served as Head of Employment in Australia at DLA Piper, where he established and grew the practice significantly. His career also includes senior leadership roles as Head of Employment in London at Sidley Austin and Head of Employment in Asia at Linklaters, reflecting the depth and breadth of his global experience.

Nicholas advises on the full spectrum of workplace issues, including senior executive matters, remuneration and incentives, enterprise bargaining, and complex disputes. He is particularly experienced in guiding organisations through workplace change and large-scale workforce transformations, as well as advising on cross-border employment matters and corporate transactions.

Darren Perry, Chair of Seyfarth’s International Employment Law department and Managing Partner of the firm’s Australian offices, commented:

Nicholas, with his extensive background, will fulfil a valuable role with his ability to connect our Australia practice with the cross-border work done by our International Department partners in the United States, London and Hong Kong.

Daniel Waldman, Vice Chair of the International Employment Department, added:

Nicholas is a strong addition to our team who further enhances our market-leading reputation in Australia. It is so valuable to have such an experienced lawyer in Sydney, with his being UK-qualified and having spent meaningful time in Hong Kong, who can also operate cross-border and create stronger connections back to our other offices.

Commenting on his appointment, Nicholas said:

Seyfarth presents a compelling opportunity to me as both a lawyer and business generator. I am truly energised by the prospect of focusing on client work with the outstanding team of lawyers at Seyfarth, both in Australia and internationally. Seyfarth’s strong and stable brand platform will enable me to advance my practice to the next level.

With Nicholas’ appointment, Seyfarth continues to invest in its Australian practice and its global capabilities, ensuring clients benefit from deep local expertise combined with a truly international outlook.

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Recent public debate following the Federal Court’s decision in Giggle v Tickle has prompted a private member’s bill introduced on 25 May 2026 by a National Party MP seeking to amend the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth) (SDA). The bill seeks to introduce clearer, and in some contexts prioritised, protections based on biological sex—particularly in areas such as single-sex facilities, services and spaces. The Coalition has indicated support for these changes.

While the bill’s prospects remain uncertain, it raises important questions for employers about how potential legislative change may intersect with existing workplace obligations.

A shifting legal landscape

At present, the SDA protects individuals from discrimination on the basis of both sex and gender identity. Employers are therefore required to ensure that workplace policies and practices do not unlawfully discriminate on either ground.

The proposed amendment signals a potential shift towards giving primacy to biological sex in specific contexts. Even if the legislative change is not enacted in its current form, the broader policy debate reflects increasing scrutiny around how competing protected attributes are balanced in practice.

For employers, this highlights the importance of remaining agile and informed as the legal landscape evolves.

Workplace impact: where issues may arise

Although the proposal is focused on areas such as bathrooms, accommodation and certain services, there are clear overlaps with workplace settings. Employers may need to consider how any changes could affect:

  • Workplace facilities – including access to bathrooms, change rooms or other sex-specific spaces
  • Policies and procedures – particularly diversity, inclusion, anti-discrimination and workplace behaviour policies
  • Dress codes and uniform requirements
  • Participation in workplace programs or initiatives that may be sex- or gender-specific

In many cases, these issues already require careful navigation. Any legislative amendment may add further complexity rather than providing a simple resolution.

Managing competing rights and obligations

A key challenge for employers is balancing potentially competing rights—particularly where the rights of individuals based on sex and gender identity may intersect.

Employers should be mindful that:

  • Anti-discrimination obligations will continue to apply, even if their scope changes
  • Work health and safety duties require employers to provide safe working environments for all employees
  • Respectful workplace expectations remain critical, regardless of legal developments

Even if reforms prioritise biological sex in certain contexts, this will not eliminate the need for careful, case-by-case assessment and sound judgement.

Practical considerations for employers

In light of this development, employers may wish to proactively consider:

  • Policy review: Are existing policies sufficiently clear, current and adaptable to potential legal change?
  • Consistency: Are workplace decisions being made consistently and in line with documented policies?
  • Training and communication: Are managers equipped to navigate sensitive issues lawfully and appropriately?
  • Escalation processes: Are there clear pathways for handling complaints or conflicts involving competing rights?
  • Documentation: Are decisions well-reasoned and recorded, given the potential for scrutiny?

Taking a proactive approach can help mitigate risk, regardless of whether legislative reform proceeds.

The continued role of judgement and expertise

Importantly, even with increased legislative clarity, these issues are unlikely to become purely rules-based. Many workplace scenarios will still require nuanced judgment, taking into account legal obligations, organisational context and employee wellbeing.

For employers, this underscores the ongoing importance of seeking legal guidance when navigating complex or sensitive situations.

Looking ahead

The proposed amendment is part of a broader and evolving national conversation about the scope and operation of discrimination law. Whether or not this particular bill is passed, it highlights the potential for change and the need for employers to stay informed.

We will continue to monitor developments and provide insights as the position becomes clearer.

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Responsible employers have long known that having comprehensive workplace behaviour policies are essential but not nearly enough. Even organisations with well‑established policies can find themselves exposed if they can’t demonstrate that they are continually reinforcing standards, assessing risks, and equipping workers to identify and prevent harmful conduct.

Employers are facing an increasingly complex compliance landscape — and a greater legal obligation to take proactive and ongoing steps to create safe, respectful, and inclusive working environments. Evolving legal duties around psychosocial risks, discrimination, bullying, sexual harassment and workplace culture mean that a “set and forget” approach is no longer an option (if it ever was).

Why a “set and forget” approach is not enough

Workplace culture is dynamic. Teams change, leaders change, and expectations and norms change, often rapidly. As community standards rise and legislation in this space continues to evolve, leading employers must show they are taking “positive steps” to eliminate or minimise behavioural and psychosocial risks as far as reasonably practicable.

Our firm recently kicked off the year with workplace behaviour training. This is mandatory for all staff (including lawyers and allied professionals). Like our clients, we recognise that regular, organisation‑wide engagement is but one tool to maintaining a safe, respectful and professional environment—not only as a way to satisfy legal obligations, but also because a healthy workplace culture underpins successful business strategy.

What effective workplace behaviour training looks like in practice

Effective risk management means creating regular opportunities for employees at all levels to refresh their understanding of appropriate workplace behaviour. To support compliance and influence culture, modern workplace behaviour training should be:

  1. Practical, relevant, and grounded in real scenarios – Training should go beyond explaining the law. Employees need real‑world examples of bullying, harassment, discrimination, sexual harassment and victimisation, including subtle or cumulative conduct that might slip under the radar. Practical case studies help employees recognise behaviour early and respond appropriately.
  2. Ongoing reinforcement, not one‑off training – An annual refresher is now the baseline. Many employers opt for shorter, more frequent touchpoints to reinforce expectations and address new risks as they arise.
  3. Demonstrating proactive compliance with positive duties – Employers should be able to demonstrate genuine, proactive steps such as:
    • documenting attendance and follow‑up actions
    • addressing behavioural risks identified through complaints, surveys or safety assessments, and
    • ensuring leaders model the standards.
  4. Delivered by leaders – Leaders, not just HR or inhouse lawyers, must take ownership of workplace behaviour training. Culture is shaped most powerfully by those with whom employees are interacting day-to-day. When employees hear expectations about conduct, respect, and accountability directly from their leaders, it signals that these standards are not merely policy-driven but integral to how the organisation operates. Training delivered, organised and encouraged by leaders is more likely to be seen as authentic, relevant, and enforceable – bridging the gap between written policies and actual workplace behaviour. It also reinforces that responsibility for a safe and respectful workplace sits at every level of management.

If your organisation is looking to introduce or refresh workplace behaviour training, our team can assist with tailored programs that meet your legal obligations, business objectives, and support a healthy and positive workplace culture.

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Two years ago, in a previous blog, we said the bell had not yet tolled for outsourcing. But that might be a gentle ringing you hear in the distance….

The High Court of Australia’s decision in Helensburgh Coal Pty Ltd v Bartley & Ors [2025] HCA 29 (Helensburgh Coal case) has increased the risk profile of redundancy programs where other functions in the business are being performed by contractors. Businesses facing unfair dismissal claims may now have to convince the Fair Work Commission that it would not have been reasonable to make changes to their enterprise to “insource” those functions. A flow-on effect may be that businesses are less willing to take the risk associated with outsourcing work in the first place.

Why would an employer need to think about insourcing contractor work during a redundancy program?

Unfair dismissal claims cannot be made by an employee who is “genuinely redundant”. That depends (at least in part) on whether it would have been “reasonable in all the circumstances for the person to be redeployed”. Up until now, there was a general understanding that someone could only be redeployed if there were vacant employment positions to put them into, and that there was no need to create jobs.

However, the High Court has now confirmed “redeployment” is not limited in that way – it will include looking at whether the employer could reasonably have made changes to how it uses its workforce to operate its business, including whether it could free up work for the redundant employee to perform.

In the Helensburgh Coal case, this meant looking at the use of contractors. The employer had longstanding contractors who were continuing to provide services to the company, and the impacted employees argued that the company should insource that work to the redundant employees, who had the requisite skills and experience. The High Court’s decision means that the Fair Work Commission was permitted to examine whether it was reasonable for the company to cease using the contractors to do that work and use the impacted employees instead.

As a result, whether a “genuine redundancy” has occurred will in some cases now depend, at least in part, on the Fair Work Commission’s assessment of whether it would have been reasonable for the employer to reorganise its business to create jobs including by insourcing work performed by contractors.

What does this mean for outsourcing?

The decision does not mean that employers cannot outsource work or that there is a legal obligation in every situation to replace contractors or labour hire workers with employees whose positions are redundant. However, any employer who proceeds with redundancies while still using contractors or labour hire is likely to face higher risks of a dispute, even if the impacted employees would require some retraining to perform the relevant work.

In any dispute about “genuine redundancy”, the employee(s) or their union could seek access to detailed business records, and ask the Fair Work Commission to assess whether that evidence shows it would have been reasonable to decide not to use any contractors or to insource functions that would have provided the redundant employees with ongoing work.

We will need to wait to see how many cases end up in these kinds of disputes, and how many employers are willing to defend their ongoing use of contractors or outsourcing.

Will businesses still be able to justify the continuing use of contractors if they are reducing the number of employees?

The Helensburgh Coal case related to a particular situation where:

  • the work being performed by the contractor workforce (conveyor belt maintenance) was work that was intimately connected with the work of the impacted employees;
  • there was evidence that the impacted employees could have relatively easily undertaken that work – because they had worked for the contractor in the past and had experience doing the work that was being performed by the contractor workforce; and
  • the Commission had determined that Helensburgh Coal was “not philosophically opposed to insource work by removing contractors”.

While each circumstance will be different, we expect that businesses going through redundancy programs will need to justify the ongoing use of contractors or labour hire by pointing to the reasons that:

  1. the use of contractors or labour hire to perform particular work remains important to the business’s operating model – this might relate, for instance, to the specialist skills required or the short-term or temporary nature of the tasks being performed by the contractor workforce. There might be other reasons too;
  2. the impacted employees could not perform the tasks being performed by the contractor workforce – for example, the employees might require technical qualifications or skills that would take many years to gain, or the work is irregular and sporadic.

If the employer does decide not to make a change to the way in which it operates its business, it will need to ensure the reasons for doing so are lawful, commercial and sensible, and should keep a careful record of them.

More generally, the decision emphasises the growing tension in Australian workplaces between:

  • unions pursuing their preference for direct employment, including their aversion to outsourcing any aspect of a business’s operations; and
  • business seeking more flexibility with how and when they organise their operations, and engage labour, in the face of fast-paced changes in the operating environment and ever-increasing regulatory complexity and fixed costs.

We expect to see more development, both in legislation and case law, in this area as employers and employees – and governments – grapple with these opposing forces.

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If you’re an employer operating heavy vehicles in NSW, understanding how an Enforceable Undertaking (EU) works under the Heavy Vehicle National Law (HVNL) could be critical to your legal strategy. When facing allegations of non-compliance, knowing who initiates the charge – and how that affects your legal options – can significantly impact strategic decision-making.

In the event of an alleged contravention of the HVNL, the National Heavy Vehicle Regulator (NHVR) may accept an EU as an alternative to prosecution. There are detailed guidelines and discretionary factors the NHVR apply when considering EU proposals. In 2023-2024, 16 EUs were accepted.

EUs have long been a useful feature of responsive regulatory frameworks. In the context of the HVNL, they represent an opportunity for duty-holders who might otherwise be criminally convicted and punished, to instead implement safety programs in relation to transport activities relating to a heavy vehicle. Those programs can significantly improve safety outcomes of individuals working in such activities, and more generally, everyone else who use public roads on which heavy vehicles travel. Indeed, “promoting a strong safety outcome” and “broad transport community benefits” are key factors the NHVR consider when assessing EU proposals.

EUs are a legislative mechanism the NSW government would (presumably) want on the table for potential safety programs or initiatives that could significantly improve the sobering fatality and serious injury data for NSW roads: 352 lives lost in the last 12 months and 10695 serious injuries in the 12-month period ending September 2024.

But the NHVR EU Policy and Guidelines apply to the NHVR. It does not appear that the NSW Police – who also have responsibility for enforcing compliance with the HVNL in that jurisdiction – have their own published EU Policy and Guidelines in relation to HVNL offences.

In New South Wales, where the Police charge and prosecute alleged offences against the HVNL, police prosecutors can only accept an EU as an alternative to prosecution where they have the NSW Police Commissioner’s written authority to do so under s590A(10) of that law. While it may exist, we are unaware of any such written authority.

What does this mean? In a practical sense, it means if the NSW Police have laid charges against you for an alleged offence against the HVNL in that jurisdiction, the important remedy (or mechanism) of applying for an EU to achieve safety outcomes on public roads may be more challenging.

While the example above is NSW-centric, the HVNL operates in all Australian jurisdictions, except Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Police officers in these jurisdictions also have powers and functions (including enforcement powers) in respect of the HVNL. But the NHVR Compliance and Enforcement Policy expressly states that it does not affect the exercise of any applicable discretion by police officers exercising powers under the HVNL.

The ‘take-home message’ – it is important to understand not just the law, but also who is enforcing it and how that agency exercises its regulatory and prosecutorial discretion. Those factors can change what legal options are available to you and what strategy to deploy in a particular case.

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In Part 3 of our series, we’ll look at the standard of proof, the conduct of interviews, how each country aims to protect confidentiality and whistleblowers, and privacy. (Part 1 covers the definition of ‘workplace’ harassment, investigation scoping and legal privilege. Part 2 covers who forms part of an investigation team, how location affects which laws apply to an investigation, notification and timing requirements).

#7 – What standard of proof is used in investigations?

The standard of proof used in workplace investigations is crucial for determining the outcome of allegations.

The civil standard of proof is consistent across Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore and PRC – if this is applied, then the evidence must show that it is ‘more likely than not’ that the conduct occurred.

Unless policies, workplace-specific laws or contracts require a different approach, cross-border investigations in these countries can use the same standard when making findings based on the evidence.

#8 – How should interviews be conducted during investigations?

The interview process is a critical component of any investigation. It allows the investigator to uncover details and firsthand accounts in order to understand what occurred.

Witness selection should be based on whether they can be expected to provide relevant evidence. It is best practice to limit the interview list where possible, in order to reduce the risk of the accused’s ongoing employment becoming untenable by virtue of too many people knowing about the allegations. In some investigations, it will be necessary to interview a large number of people, given the nature of the allegations, but that is not always the case and careful thought should be given to keeping control of the interview list.

In Australia, for wellbeing reasons, it is best practice to allow a support person to accompany the witness and (in some cases) employers may permit union or legal representation. This is not the case in Hong Kong, Singapore and the PRC, where witnesses are not legally permitted to be accompanied to the interview, neither is it common practice to allow this for wellbeing reasons. Recorded interviews require consent under some laws, ensuring that all parties are aware of and agree to the recording. Where recording is not consented to, it is important in all jurisdictions to take detailed notes of the interview. In the PRC, secret recordings of investigation interviews may be admissible in court (unless carried out in a private space such as a witness’s home), which is something to be mindful of when conducting investigations in the PRC.

#9 – How are confidentiality and whistleblower protections ensured?

Confidentiality and whistleblower protections are essential components of workplace investigations because when employees know their identity and information will be kept confidential, they are more likely to participate without fear of retaliation.

Australia has strict whistleblower protections. If a complaint includes ‘whistleblowing’ as defined under law, onerous confidentiality obligations limit both disclosure of the whistleblower’s identity and information that could lead to whistleblower identification. Investigation processes in Australia must be adapted to ensure that the investigation itself does not inadvertently breach whistleblower confidentiality protections, which can be a criminal offence. Australian law also protects people from victimisation or ‘adverse action’ in their employment.

In Hong Kong, there is no express protection for whistleblowers. In the anti-discrimination ordinances of Hong Kong, there is, however, protection against victimisation where an employee raises a complaint or claim related to a protected characteristic (which is limited to gender (including marital status, pregnancy and breastfeeding), race, disability and family status in Hong Kong. Similarly, in Singapore, there are no general whistleblower protection laws. However, the Workplace Fairness Act 2025 prohibits employers from retaliation against employees who have raised a discrimination or harassment-related grievance.

The PRC implements safeguards for whistleblowers and witnesses under confidentiality laws to protect their legitimate rights and interests, prevent retaliation and ensure their psychological and professional wellbeing.

#10 – How are data privacy and cross-border transfers managed?

Data privacy and cross-border transfers are critical considerations in workplace investigations.

In Australia, there are restrictions on use, disclosure and handling of data, including both ‘personal information’ under federal law and certain categories of ‘health information’ under federal and state laws. There are also restrictions on the transfer of data offshore and/or disclosure to third parties.

In Hong Kong, employers should check whether their existing Personal Information Collection Statement (PICS) is broad enough to cover the use, collection and transfer or employees’ personal data for the purpose of the investigation and also whether the witnesses (including the complainant and the accused) have been issued with the PICS. If not, employers could issue a new PICS for the purpose of the investigation, or could expressly seek the witnesses’ consent to the use of their personal data in this way (although consent is not required under the Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance (PDPO) where a PICS has met all the necessary notification requirements, unless existing personal data will be used in a new way). The PDPO does not currently prevent or restrict the transfer of personal data overseas.

In Singapore, the requirements on the use, collection and disclosure of personal data fall under personal data protection legislation. In respect of cross-border transfer of personal data outside Singapore, the general rule is that personal data shall not be transferred outside Singapore except in accordance with the personal data protection legislation or if exempted by the Privacy Commission upon application.

In the PRC, the processing of personal data must meet specific conditions, including in relation to consent, security assessments and data protection agreements. The PRC framework is the strictest data transfer regulation in Asia Pacific.

Are there other measures that should be considered during investigations?

In Australia, suspension during an investigation can be considered, however any changes to complainants’ work conditions must be carefully managed to avoid unlawful adverse action. Providing wellbeing support is also essential to ensure that all affected employees receive the necessary assistance to prevent risks to work health and safety.

In Hong Kong and Singapore, suspension during an investigation is also contemplated where there are concerns around the integrity of the investigation being jeopardised by having the accused (and perhaps others) continuing to work during the investigation process, and also if there are concerns around personal safety/retaliation. Employers should be aware of the laws regarding suspension in these jurisdictions though, as these can affect how long the individual can be suspended for and what they are paid during the suspension. In the PRC, suspension is permitted as long as the employee continues to receive his/her normal salary during it.

We hope that our series of breaking down ten key aspects of cross border workplace investigations in APAC has been insightful. Our authors would be pleased to address any follow-up queries you may have.

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In Part 2 of our series, we’ll look at who forms part of an investigation team, how location affects which laws apply to an investigation, notification and timing requirements. (Part 1 covers the definition of ‘workplace’ harassment, investigation scoping and legal privilege).

#4 – Who should be part of the investigation team?

The composition of the investigation team can significantly impact the effectiveness and credibility of the investigation.

In Australia, some states restrict who can conduct investigations. Subject to this restriction, the investigation team should be experienced in local requirements and standards for investigations.

In the PRC, there is no legal requirement for the composition of the team, but typically an investigation would involve legal counsel and HR from the client, and/or external advisors (e.g., law firms such as Seyfarth). Gender diversity may be considered for sensitive cases (such as sexual harassment) to ensure witnesses feel comfortable.

In Hong Kong and Singapore, investigations are often carried out internally by legal counsel, the ER/investigations team and/or HR, or they are carried out externally by a third-party provider such as a law firm or HR consultancy firm.  The guiding principle is to keep the team who is carrying out the investigation small and of close proximity, to maintain the confidentiality and integrity of the investigation. The size and composition of the investigation team will also depend on the jurisdictions involved, logistics and the nature or sensitivity of the matter.

#5 – Which laws governs a particular workplace investigation?

In Australia, the governing law depends on factors such as the employment contract, incident location, location in which the investigation occurs or the location of the company or parties. For cross-border matters, there is the possibility of multiple laws applying.

The way in which an investigation is conducted is not prescribed by law in the PRC, Hong Kong and Singapore and those investigations that focus on fact-finding only do not necessarily have to consider what laws may apply to the situation (other than in respect of legal privilege and data privacy).

What is considered, in Hong Kong and Singapore, are any processes and procedures set out in relevant employee handbooks, policies, code of conduct or contracts in relation to investigations, whistleblowing, grievances and disciplinaries, etc. For cross-border matters, it can be the case that the grievance procedure relevant to one jurisdiction will need to be considered alongside the disciplinary procedure for another. The employer’s duties under local law may also need to be taken into account, such as the duty of care towards employees, the rules on vicarious liability, and preventing harassment and victimisation.

In the PRC, governing law is determined by the location of the company or the incident, rather than the terms of the contract or policy.

#6 – How should parties be notified about an investigation?

In Australia, it is best practice to provide some context in advance of an investigation interview and explain the ground rules for the interviewee in accordance with any relevant policies. It is not necessary to provide advance notice of questions (unless the company has committed to do this). Employers must also consider how best to support work health and safety during an investigation, for example, it is best practice to allow an interviewee a reasonable opportunity to bring a support person with them, without breaching confidentiality or compromising the investigation.

In Hong Kong and Singapore, there are no strict legal requirements regarding notification of investigation. In Hong Kong, where summary dismissal may be a possible outcome flowing from the investigation, it is advisable that the investigation be carried out in a full and thorough manner, which would include giving the accused notice of the investigation and allowing him/her a fair opportunity to put forward his/her side of the story. In Hong Kong and Singapore, where notification is given to parties regarding the investigation, care should be taken to emphasise the confidentiality of the investigation process.

In the PRC, there is no standard practice for notifying parties involved in an internal investigation. However, notifications should include the purpose and scope of the investigation, as well as the rights and obligations of the parties concerned. The language of the notice should be clear and concise.

The timing of an investigation can significantly impact its effectiveness and the perception of fairness.

Though Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the PRC have differed slightly in their key considerations, the jurisdictions align on the matter of timing. There is unlikely to be a prescribed timeframe (unless stated in an internal policy), but action should be taken promptly to avoid delay and in turn, the credibility of an investigation. This is especially the case where one or more individuals have been suspended pending the outcome of the investigation.

In the third and final part of our series, we’ll look at the standard of proof, the conduct of interviews, and how each country aims to protect confidentiality and whistleblowers.

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Seyfarth recently hosted a webinar entitled ‘Managing Cross-Border Sexual Harassment Investigations in Australia and Asia’, addressing the practical considerations that employers should be aware of when investigating allegations of sexual harassment in the workplace. This webinar highlighted relevant laws and examples from Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Given the strong interest in this topic, we bring you a series of three blogs that highlight 10 key considerations.

Managing cross-border sexual harassment investigations in the Asia Pacific region presents unique challenges due to varying legal frameworks, cultural norms, and procedural requirements. This blog series aims to provide an outline to help navigate these complexities, focusing on the key differences in investigation procedures across the Asia Pacific region. By understanding these differences, organisations can ensure that their investigations are conducted fairly, efficiently, and in compliance with local laws.

Part one of this series covers our first three considerations – the definition of ‘workplace’ harassment, privilege, and investigation teams.

#1 – When is ‘workplace’ sexual harassment unlawful in each country?

This question affects when sexual harassment is a matter for employers, and can validly be the subject of an investigation. Remote work, social events, and other non-traditional settings can all raise complexities.

In Australia, sexual harassment is unlawful (and employer liability can arise) in a variety of circumstances where the harasser or victim is a worker, or where there is a relevant connection to work. This extends outside the boundary of a physical ‘workplace’ or ordinary working hours.

In the PRC, ‘workplace’ usually encompasses social activities closely related to work and company organised events, for example, a work Christmas party.

In Hong Kong and Singapore, ‘out of hours’ events may be considered part of the ‘workplace’ if there is a sufficient connection between the workplace or employment and the out-of-hours conduct engaged in by the employee. In Hong Kong, workplace sexual harassment can occur not just between employees but between any ‘workplace participant’, which includes contract workers, interns, and volunteers as well.

#2 – Establishing the scope of sexual harassment investigations

Being clear about the scope of a workplace investigation will help define the specific issues to be investigated, and what questions the investigator will (or won’t) answer. For an investigation to be thorough and effective, the scope must be clearly defined to ensure that it addresses all the relevant issues.

In Australia, it can assist to ensure the scope is recorded in writing, including what allegations are being investigated and whether the investigation will be limited to fact-finding.

In Hong Kong, the scope of the investigation is quite often limited to fact-finding, with advice on what action to take subsequent to the investigation (including any disciplinary action) being carried out by separate lawyers within the same firm (with information barriers put in place) or a different firm, so as to maintain the independence of the investigation. The position is similar in Singapore, but with a little more flexibility.

In the PRC, investigators play a more active role than other jurisdictions in deciding the scope of an investigation, as well as providing recommendations and participating in disciplinary proceedings.

#3 – How is privileged information protected during investigations?

Legal privilege varies significantly across jurisdictions. This affects the extent to which confidential communications and documents can be protected from requests or orders for disclosure.

Legal privilege in Australia can apply to confidential communications where the dominant purpose was for litigation or provision of legal advice. It is possible that investigation records and the final report can be protected by legal privilege where they were created for a privileged purpose. In Australia, a common cause of dispute is whether privilege has been waived by later disclosure or use of documents for other purposes or if promises have been made about what would be disclosed.

In Hong Kong and Singapore, where investigations are conducted on a pure fact-finding basis (i.e., no legal advice is provided) and litigation is not reasonably in contemplation at the time of the investigation, it can be more challenging to assert legal privilege over the investigation process and report. If a client wants an investigation to be conducted under privilege, this will need to be carefully considered when establishing the scope of the investigation and steps put in place to achieve the protection of privilege.

The PRC does not recognise legal privilege like common law jurisdictions do. Lawyers in the PRC have an obligation to maintain confidentiality and have the right to refuse disclosure of certain documents or information in order to protect clients’ trade secrets and personal data.

In part two of our series, we will look at who forms part of an investigation team, how location affects which laws apply to an investigation, and notification requirements.

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“Curiosity killed the cat” is a proverb “used to warn of the dangers of unnecessary investigation or experimentation” (Wikipedia) or is an idiom “said to warn someone not to ask too many questions about something” (Cambridge online dictionary). Yet for the modern officer, curiosity is a must, as it aligns with their personal WHS due diligence obligation.

Work health and safety (WHS) legislation, case law developments and many a published article on corporate governance (or lack thereof), confirm that in the case of an officer, failing to investigate or ask questions about WHS can lead to potential corporate, and personal, criminal liability. And there’s more than just the legal side – there’s the societal expectations, reputational risks, and human impacts on the officer and others.

Legal changes and criminal penalties often reflect what society expects and values. When society demands higher health and safety standards or accountability, laws and penalties are often updated to match those expectations. The current state of WHS law demonstrates how seriously Australian legislators take WHS:

  • For more than a decade most Australian jurisdictions have had a definition of due diligence and a requirement that officers (meaning more than the board, CEO and company secretary) exercise due diligence to ensure the company complies with its legal WHS obligations.
  • There’s now a definition of corporate culture in one jurisdiction and provisions regarding the attribution of conduct of workers and agents to the body corporate in all jurisdictions.
  • Each state and territory have an industrial manslaughter offence, meaning officers (or senior officers in Queensland) face maximum penalties of at least 20 years in prison if their conduct causes a death. The conduct categories vary by jurisdiction, including negligence, gross negligence, recklessness and knowledge of likely harm or death.

There has been a lot of commentary on recent cases highlighting the officer duties in larger organisations. Some of this commentary suggests that there is now a clearer picture of the requirements of an officer. Is this really the case? Sure, the consequence in at least one case was “new” but in the context of the increasing focus on WHS, is what was expected to meet their personal due diligence obligation really “new”?

When we boil it all down, one of the key issues is curiosity—whether it exists or is lacking. Officers must take timely action when information requires it. Being a passive recipient of information is not enough. Due diligence includes verifying other elements of the legislative requirements and acquiring and maintaining WHS knowledge. This involves both internal and external considerations.

How you exercise due diligence will depend on the type of officer you are – executive director, non-executive director, company secretary, executive or senior level manager, or someone operating in the “shades of grey” of the Corporations Act’s definition of “officer”. It also depends on the type of business – white collar, blue collar, static or dynamic workplace. Its going to depend on the business’ nuances, the level of oversight of operational persons or processes, and that officer’s “day job”, amongst a myriad of other factors. The questions you ask will vary, but the need to ask questions is not new. Depending on who you are, such questions might include “what are the health and safety implications of this?” or “how does this process consider safety?”

If you’re an officer who is curious about WHS, keep it up. If you’re not, or not as much as you should be, get curious. The consequences of not doing so have never been higher with increasing financial penalties and in some circumstances, time in prison. Years down the track, in a clinical and forensic court room, in front of the family of a deceased or seriously injured worker, there aren’t many good sounding reasons you can’t be curious. Once you are curious, act on the information provided to you – not doing so could be worse than not being curious.

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